Vaccines. 93, 125130. 81, 419423. A. doi: 10.1016/j.drudis.2013.11.008, Padilla, B., Gil, J. V., and Manzanares, P. (2016). Hazard. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.03.054, Katrlik, J., Vostiar, I., Sefcovicova, J., Tkac, J., Mastihuba, V., Valach, M., et al. Microorganisms, therefore, may have two different roles in current food production. (2009). Technological Microbiology, however, started to draw the attention of the market when products originating from microbial activity began to be required on an industrial scale. Traditional covalent linkages between carbohydrates and carrier proteins have been used to increase immune responses to polysaccharide antigens (Nishat and Andreana, 2016), thereby obtaining conjugate vaccines. doi: 10.7363/040253, Borneman, A. R., Schmidt, S. A., and Pretorius, I. S. (2013). A. Biol. Res. 11:64. doi: 10.1186/1475-2859-11-64, Baldo, B. Synthetic dyes and colourants have been the mainstay of the pigment industry for decades. Chemical, toxicological, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial evaluation of Ganoderma lucidum extracts. Produo e caracterizao de polihidroxialcanoatos obtidos por fermentao da glicerina bruta residual do biodiesel. Another up-and-coming clinical application of genomics and transcriptomics is pharmacogenomics, also called toxicogenomics, which involves evaluating the effectiveness and safety of drugs on the basis of information from an individual's genomic sequence. Biotechnol. doi: 10.1016/j.micres.2014.12.007. Energy Combust. In cytoplasmic incompatibility, fertilization of females not infected with Wolbachia by infected males results in embryonic mortality. Potentiometric microbial electrode. Molecular microbial diversity of an anaerobic digestor as determined by small-subunit rDNA sequence analysis. J. Med. 94, 125132. Spectr. (2017). Isolation and characterization of endophytic taxol-producing fungi from Taxus chinensis. J. Agric. Braz. Superbugthe so-called NDM-1. Anal. Bacterial cellulose as a potential scaffold for tissue engineering of cartilage. doi: 10.1517/14712598.2012.636348, Fu, Y. Q., Yin, L. F., Zhu, H. Y., Jiang, R., Li, S., and Xu, Q. Inactivated vaccines, which are classified as whole or fractionated, contain completely inactivated or fractionated pathogens or only antigenic components of these pathogens (including subunit vaccines, toxoid vaccines, carbohydrate vaccines, and conjugate vaccines). Microbial genetics plays a crucial role in field of molecular and cell biology and profound applications in medicine, food, agriculture and pharmaceutical industries. Sci. (2015). 10, 589602. These studies not only provide perspectives for producing more effective vaccines against influenza but also suggest innovative approaches for the generation of live attenuated strains for viral pathogens, which remains a challenge (Bournazos and Ravetch, 2017). Because Kaylas symptoms were persistent and serious enough to interfere with daily activities, Kaylas physician decided to order some laboratory tests. (2004). doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2010.09.005, Suksong, W., Kongjan, P., Prasertsan, P., Imai, T., and O-Thong, S. (2016). Attenuated vaccines have been efficiently developed for a range of diseases: mumps, polio (Sabin), rubella, measles, smallpox, chickenpox, tuberculosis, yellow fever, and dengue. Protein extracted from cultivated microbial biomass (single-cell protein SCP) can be used for protein supplementation in basic diets, replacing expensive conventional sources and alleviating the problem of protein shortages (Anupama and Ravindra, 2000). 4:FUNK-0012-2016. Revaccination with live attenuated vaccines confer additional beneficial nonspecific effects on overall survival: a review. doi: 10.1016/j.ymben.2016.01.007. doi: 10.1016/S0926-3373(00)00168-5, Durbin, A. P. (2016). 9, 25052523. Adejuwon, A. O., Oluduro, A. O., Agboola, F. K., Olutiola, P. O., Burkhardt, B. Biotechnol. doi: 10.1016/j.molcatb.2010.03.008, Rodriguez-Carmona, E., and Villaverde, A. In addition to bioethanol, other energy molecules such as biogas can be obtained from the microbial conversion of biomass. J. Nematol. Microbial whole genome sequencing is an important tool for mapping genomes of novel organisms, finishing genomes of known organisms, or comparing genomes across multiple samples. In recent years, microbial genetics provides an opportunity to the scientist in which genetic information of any microorganism used as a tool in research and diagnosis. The microbial production of acetone and butanol, efficiently performed by the genus Clostridium, was one of the first large-scale industrial fermentation processes to gain global importance, but this production has been losing ground to chemical synthesis. 7:1237. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01237, Brito, M. A., and Cordeiro, B. C. (2012). It is almost as old as the civilization itself, although it wasn't called "biotechnology" until the 20th century. B. burgdorferi is not easily cultured in the laboratory, and the initial symptoms can be very mild and resemble those of many other diseases. Microbiol. (1988). Chem. Ahmad, S., Abbas, S. S., Prakash, R., Alam, A., and Husain, M. A. Related Journals of Microbial Genetics A short history of vaccination, in Vaccines, eds S. A. Plotkin and W. A. Orenstein (Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier), 116. Micro-organisms already produce industrially useful natural colorants such as . 32, 213234. AIMS Microbiol. Knowledge of a family history of conditions such as cancer or various disorders may indicate a hereditary tendency to develop these afflictions. This alternative has been successfully applied in several regions of the world (e.g., Mohiddin et al., 2016; Setha et al., 2016), and many Bti-based commercial products have been introduced to the market, although some strains of A. aegypti have already shown resistance to Bt toxins (Paris et al., 2011, 2012; Wu et al., 2016). To date, molecular strategies have advanced by establishing heterologous expression systems for the production of valuable industrial compounds, such as biofuels, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, enzymes, and food ingredients. J. 6, 295300. Currently, however, beneficial microorganisms such as plant growth promoters and phytopathogen controllers are required by various agricultural crops, and many species are being used as biofactories of important pharmacological molecules. Human insulin receives FDA approval. The patent for a genetically modified microorganism, requested by Ananda Chakrabarty, contributed to a revolution in biotechnology that resulted in the issuance of thousands of patents, the founding of hundreds of new companies, and the development of thousands of bioengineering and food plants (Holloway, 2014). FEMS Microbiol. Med. 7:1625. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01625, Rinke, C., Schwientek, P., Sczyrba, A., Ivanova, N. N., Anderson, I. J., Cheng, J.-F., et al. Bacterial larvicide, Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis strain AM 65-52 water dispersible granule formulation impacts both dengue vector, Aedes aegypti (L.) population density and disease transmission in Cambodia. Z., Lima, V. M. G., Giese, E. C., Dekker, R. F. H., and Barbosa, A. M. (2011). Nat. Direct mechanisms include mainly biofertilization, with nitrogen synthesis by strains belonging to the genera Rhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Azorhizobium, and Allorhizobium, and the stimulation of root growth through the synthesis of auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins. 5, 953965. Legal. J. Biotechnol. Bioelectron. Chemosphere 44, 281287. Technol. doi: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2008.05.008, Schmidt, S. T., Foged, C., Korsholm, K. S., Rades, T., and Christensen, D. (2016). This enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of the second -1,4-glycosidic bond from non-reducing end. The use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to improve strawberry production in coir substrate. Sens. Pasteur, L. (2002). Bio-Hydrometallurgy 7. 36, 11711177. FDA (1982). J. Appl. 40, 14511463. doi: 10.1007/s11947-016-1744-1748, Cano-Garrido, O., Cspedes, M. V., Unzueta, U., Saccardo, P., Roldn, M., Snchez-Chardi, A., et al. Microbial biosensor based on whole cell of Pseudomonas sp. 136, 198202. Halophilic microorganism resources and their applications in industrial and environmental biotechnology. Biotechnological routes based on lactic acid production from biomass. B. It also involves the transmission of hereditary characters in microbes. Soil Biol. Sci. (2016). An overview of physico-chemical mechanisms of biogas production by microbial communities: a step towards sustainable waste management. Microbial production of organic acids: expanding the markets. Food Bioprocess Technol. Bioelectron. Similar evidence was found in the Zagros Mountains of northern Mesopotamia, dating to 54005000 BC (McGovern et al., 1996). 1: A thermal cycler (left) is used during a polymerase chain reaction (PCR). An example of a microbial biosensor currently being used for pollutant monitoring purposes consists of immobilized recombinant E. coli cells expressing organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH). Changing feeding regimes to demonstrate flexible biogas production: effects on process performance, microbial community structure, and methanogenesis pathways. Godon, J. J., Zumstein, E., Dabert, P., Habouzit, F., and Moletta, R. (1997). 3:e516. Lett. Construction biotechnological plastics, in Construction Biotechnology, Part of the Series Green Energy and Technology (Singapore: Springer), 5175. However, the future popularization of protein engineering techniques, especially site-directed mutagenesis (SDM), which allows the substitution, elimination or insertion of one or more amino acids in the sequence of a protein, is expected to enable the availability of less expensive biobetters, which are the main growing class of biopharmaceuticals (Courtois et al., 2016; Jozala et al., 2016). On the other hand, endophytic microorganisms colonize plant tissues without triggering any disease symptoms, establishing a stable long-term interaction with the host plant. Rev. (2016). doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2015.12.101, Kim, K. R., Song, Y. H., Seo, J. H., and Kang, D. G. (2016). Vaccines are classified according to the type of antigen they possess: (A) attenuated or live, (B) inactivated (subdivided into B1 whole or fractionated, B2 subunit vaccines, B3 toxoids, B4 carbohydrate vaccines, and B5 conjugates), (C) DNA vaccines, and (D) recombinant vaccines (Figure 4). J. Biotechnol. (2011). The wMel Wolbachia strain blocks dengue and invades caged Aedes aegypti populations. Poly(Hydroxyalkanoates) composites and their applications, in Green Polymer Composites Technology, ed. (2017). doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3043-2_19, Prasad, J., Gill, H., Smart, J., and Gopal, P. K. (2000). The class of biodegradable biopolymers of major interest is the polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), and the best known among these are poly(beta-hydroxybutyrate; PHB), poly(beta-hydroxyvalerate; PHV), and poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate; PHB-V), the latter being commercially known as Biopol. Biomaterials 24, 23392349. 29, 439444. MICROBIAL GENETICS (BIO-375/575 . doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004973, Sharma, R., Chisti, Y., and Banerjee, U. C. (2001). These are just a few of the numerous applications of microbial genetics that we will explore in this chapter. The HGH gene was cloned from a cDNA library and inserted into E. coli cells by cloning it into a bacterial vector. Dis. doi: 10.1111/pce.12600, Krause, L., Diaz, N. N., Edwards, R. A., Gartemann, K.-H., Krmeke, H., Neuweger, H., et al. Extracellular production of tellurium nanoparticles by the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodobacter capsulatus. Today 19, 590601. Proc. Polyhydroxyalkanoates: biodegradable polymers with a range of applications. The potential of fungal chitosan, when present in bioactive filters, to chelate heavy metals and inhibit pathogenic microbial agents in contaminated water was recently evaluated (e.g., Ruholahi et al., 2016; Tayel et al., 2016a) for the development of a renewable, ecofriendly, and cost-effective polymer that can help overcome the current problems of chemical and microbial water pollution (Tayel et al., 2016b). 57, 295303. Stephen, A., Marglin, S. A., and Schor, J. Examples of this are the products of the bacterium Streptomyces avermitilis, which are metabolites known as avermectins. Liu, K., Ding, X., Deng, B., and Chen, W. (2009). Since the 1970s, there has been a veritable explosion in scientists ability to manipulate DNA in ways that have revolutionized the fields of biology, medicine, diagnostics, forensics, and industrial manufacturing. 1. Limited research results, inappropriate prescription of antibiotics, and misuse of antibiotics by the general population have threatened antibiotic potency and increased the occurrence of superbugs, i.e., microorganisms that appear at an alarming rate and are resistant to most or all clinical antibiotics in use (Srivastava et al., 2011). Genetic immunization: bacteria as DNA vaccine delivery vehicles. Formation of Se (0) nanoparticles by Duganella sp. Biocontrol Sci. Meijnen, J.-P., Randazzo, P., Foulqui-Moreno, M. R., Brink, J. V. D., Vandecruys, P., Stojiljkovic, M., et al. doi: 10.1007/978-4-431-55248-2-2, Tatsumi, K., Wada, S., and Ichikawa, H. (1996). Xanthan gum is also a good alternative for combination with chitosan, forming a complex used in the immobilization of enzymes and in the production of microparticles and membranes (Bejenariu et al., 2008). Attempts at improving citric acid fermentation by Aspergillus niger in beet-molasses medium. Peroxidases, polyphenol oxidases, and tyrosinases obtained from microorganisms such as P. syringae, Arthromyces ramosus, and Agaricus bisporus may be applied to the removal of phenols, biphenols, and chlorophenols (Tatsumi et al., 1996; Tong et al., 1998; Akay et al., 2002; Kampmann et al., 2014). These coatings, which contain spores of growth promoters such as T. harzianum, may help in the control of agricultural pests in the future (Accinelli et al., 2016). The microorganisms are then grown on an industrial scale to synthesize products such as insulin, vaccines, and biodegradable polymers. Genes from pathogenic bacteria, such as Citrobacter freundii and Klebsiella pneumoniae, were recently introduced in E. coli to allow the efficient synthesis of 1,3-PDO from waste glycerol (Przystaowska et al., 2015). No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. 3 Biotech 6, 72. doi: 10.1007/s13205-016-0395-9, Hasan, F., Shah, A. 35, 6474. Srivastava, R. K., Ichhpujani, R. I., Khare, S., Rai, A., and Chauhan, L. S. (2011). Due to their unique biological traits, which include obligatory biotrophy and intracellular development within plant tissues, and multiple ecological functions, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMFs; which are also thought to have helped plants conquer terrestrial environments) have aroused agronomic interests with the aim of sustainable production with low chemical consumption (Lanfranco et al., 2016). This promotion of growth by endophytic action may be a consequence of nitrogen fixation, synthesis of phytohormones, biocontrol of phytopathogens through the synthesis of antibiotics or siderophores, competition for nutrients, and the induction of systemic disease resistance (Ahmad et al., 2016). Potential of Bacillus thuringiensis in the management of pernicious lepidopteran pests, in Plant, Soil and Microbes, eds K. R. Hakeem and M. S. Akhtar (New York City, NY: Springer International Publishing), 277301. Toxicity evaluation of e-juice and its soluble aerosols generated by electronic cigarettes using recombinant bioluminescent bacteria responsive to specific cellular damages. These biosensors showed high specificity for the detection of heavy metals (Kim K. R. et al., 2016). Adv. Molecular biology will generate new manufacturing capabilities for synthetic biology-based products that will bring major benefits. doi: 10.1023/A:1005387016390, Rao, S. S., Gomez, P., Mascola, J. R., Dang, V., Krivulka, G. R., Yu, F., et al. BioControl 58, 715722. Mechanisms employed by Trichoderma species in the biological control of plant diseases: the history and evolution of current concepts. In modern biorefineries, renewable resources such as biomass or waste products are converted into substrates susceptible to microbial action (Sauer, 2016), and thus, interest in bio-based chemicals has recently been renewed because increasing climate change and environmental problems have pushed the industry, moving it away from fossil fuel consumption and toward renewable raw materials (Moon et al., 2016). To guarantee this transmission, the bacterium manipulates its host in diverse ways such as feminization, death of males, parthenogenesis, and cytoplasmic incompatibility. 60:29630. doi: 10.3402/fnr.v60.29630, Moon, H. G., Jang, Y.-S., Cho, C., Lee, J., Binkley, R., and Lee, S. Y. doi: 10.1016/S0376-7388(01)00626-3, Ames, B. N., and Martin, R. G. (1964). Biotechnol. These are just a few of the numerous applications of microbial genetics that we will explore in this chapter. (www.glofish.com). Prog. Technol. These include food production, probiotics, cosmetics . Rev. Host: vector systems for gene cloning in Pseudomonas. (2016). These macromolecules are modified by chemical and/or engineering methods using molecular biology techniques to display better pharmacological properties, such as higher activity, greater stability, fewer side effects, and lower immunogenicity (Beck, 2011; Jozala et al., 2016). Evaluation of an FIA operated amperometric bacterial biosensor, based on Pseudomonas putida F1 for the detection of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX). 225, 18. Law J. Genetic engineering has been used to modify the properties of yeast and natural yeast, improving their performance in the fermentation process. Recent genomic discoveries have shown that the tree of life seems to be even more complex, as the existence of two extraordinarily complex and poorly studied groups has been revealed: the bacterial group Candidate Phyla Radiation (CPR) and the Archaea superphylum DPANN (Spang and Ettema, 2016). B Enzym. (2015). (2016). Many factors determine the microbial community present during composting, but under aerobic conditions, temperature is the main factor determining not only the microbial types but also the species diversity and metabolic rate (Hassen et al., 2001). B., Whittle, H. C., and Aaby, P. (2016). (2011). Classical and inundative approaches to biological weed control compared. The most commonly used filamentous fungi are Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium, and among the prokaryotic algae, the most used belong to the genus Spirulina, with approximately 65% of their dry weight consisting of protein (Nalage et al., 2016). US 2008/0138469. Nematol. Trichoderma asperellum is effective for biocontrol of Verticillium wilt in olive caused by the defoliating pathotype of Verticillium dahliae. Holloway, B. W. (2014). doi: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2011.06.003, Lei, Y., Chen, W., and Mulchandani, A. Immunol. Agarose bioplastic-based drug delivery system for surgical and wound dressings. doi: 10.1007/978-94-017-9555-5-11, Holm-Nielsen, J. (2011). 3, 1219. As an example, the thermal cycler in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) is used to perform a diagnostic technique called the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which relies on DNA polymerase enzymes from thermophilic bacteria. In addition, in the 1970s, Carl Woese and colleagues used the 16S rRNA molecule, a universally conserved sequence, as a taxonomic marker and revealed that our ignorance about microbial diversity was enormous, capable of hiding the existence of a new prokaryotic domain, the Archaea (Woese and Fox, 1977; Woese et al., 1990). Mmoire sur la fermentation alcoolique. Researchers are currently developing techniques to mimic the natural process of RNA interference as a way to treat viral infections in eukaryotic cells. Chapter 7 - Microbial Biochemistry ; Chapter 8 - Microbial Metabolism ; Chapter 9 - Microbial Growth ; Chapter 10 - Biochemistry of the Genome ; Chapter 11 - Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics ; Chapter 12 - Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics ; Chapter 13 - Control of Microbial Growth ; Chapter 14 - Antimicrobial Drugs (2006). For example, a vaccine for hepatitis B is created by inserting a gene encoding a hepatitis B surface protein into a yeast; the yeast then produces this protein, which the human immune system recognizes as an antigen. (2016). Rend. Prokaryotic production systems are required whenever the recombinant proteins are smaller or do not require post-translational modifications (PTMs), such as glycosylation, phosphorylation, or proteolytic cleavage. 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